My Art Canon

Then and Now: Ethnic Conflict in Xinjiang

James Wehn — Wed, 08 Jul 2009 12:49:58 +0000

By James Wehn

Reports and photographs of the deadly clash between Uighur and Han Chinese have headlined international news the last several days. However, these are not the first images of ethnic conflict to have come out of Xinjiang. During the Qing dynasty, Emperor Qianlong (1711-1799; reigned 1736-1799) issued an edict on July 13, 1765, commanding that a series of sixteen copperplate prints be made to commemorate his conquest of this region. The engraved prints, made in “the European style” by French artists, highlight pivotal battles and scenes of enemy surrender.

The image shown above is a detail from one of these prints, titled La Grande victoire de Qurnam (The Great Victory at Qurnam). It depicts a battle on February 3, 1759, when General Fude and six hundred Qing soldiers successfully liberated General Zhouhui’s camp, which had been besieged for months by an army of five thousand Muslim men. In this scene the Qing are armed with bows and arrows and wear short, round caps, while the Muslims wear tall hats with wide brims and fight with spears.

News reports about recent events in Xinjiang have stressed the tensions between Han Chinese and Muslim Uighurs, however, both of these ethnic groups were dominated by the Manchu during the Qing period.

In 1644, Manchu tribes from northeast Asia took control of Beijing, where the Ming dynasty had collapsed as the result of peasant rebellions. The Manchu proceeded to conquer the remaining Chinese regions and incorporate the Qing dynasty, becoming the second non-Han ruler of China by 1659. Next, the Qing began to annex territories to the west, competing for control of central Asia with Muscovite Russia and the Dzungar Mongolian confederation. After nearly a hundred years of sporadic warfare, Emperor Qianlong seized an opportunity to conquer the Dzungars who were weakened by infighting. In 1755, he launched a four-year military campaign that first destroyed the Dzungars, and then subdued nearby Turkic Muslim tribes, including those known today as Uighurs. By 1759, Qianlong had taken control of the vast western desert that later became known as Xinjiang, or “New Territory.”

The Qing dynasty’s ability to maintain political power first over the more numerous Han population, and later the inhabitants of annexed regions, was due in part to their organization of the military into a banner system, which evolved into a social, administrative, and ethnic institution. The banners, each of which was essentially its own governing body within the larger state, predominately included Manchu, assimilated loyal allies, and a select group of Han Chinese. It was critical, however, that the Qing dynasty preserve an elite Manchu identity and thus its martial advantage. Qianlong, who feared that living among the Han was causing his people to lose their sense of Manchu identity, used the military victories in the western regions to reiterate an image of dominance over those that had been conquered, and also to reinvigorate a spirit of military superiority among the Manchu.

Engravings, like La Grande victoire de Qurnam, along with others in the series, were one way that Qianlong commemorated his army’s success. The emperor, who is famous for his fascination with European culture, commissioned the series after seeing engravings after battle scenes painted by the German artist Georg Philipp Rugendas (1666-1743). Qianlong’s prints were produced by the best French engravers in the royal academy under the direction of Claude Nicolas Cochin. The scenes were modeled after copies of paintings (now lost) that Qianlong described as field sketches, and which hung in his ceremonial hall of glory along with one hundred portraits of distinguished heroes, including Generals Fude and Zhouhui.

Although today photographs of the conflict in Xinjiang appear in international news media within a matter of hours, it was nearly a decade before Qianlong received 200 impressions of each scene from France along with the engraved copper plates. Also, while the images distributed by photo journalists today are generally intended to be unbiased, Qianlong’s prints were certainly politically charged. Inscriptions of poems composed by Qianlong about the events were handwritten on many of the prints, and were stamped with his imperial seal. Qianlong gave eighty-one sets to imperial relatives and other favorites, and later commanded that sets be distributed to various imperial palaces and temples across China.

To view a complete list of prints in the French-made series along with images visit the Cleveland Museum of Art online. Images of battle prints commissioned by Emperor Qianlong, including some engraved in China to commemorate other military campaigns, can also be viewed online at the British Museum.

An example of a battle print by German artist Georg Philipp Rugendas can be viewed by following this link to the online gallery at the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco.

Bibliography

Built and Unbuilt Temples by Étienne-Louis Boullée

James Wehn — Mon, 06 Jul 2009 16:41:37 +0000

By James Wehn

Wooded hills open to reveal a complex of bright white buildings that stretch across the plains of a broad valley. A domed shrine at the center of the compound stands above the other buildings. Its nobility is reiterated by a mountain rising majestically into the clouds, where upon the plateau, a temple sits between earth and sky, exposed to all the elements of nature.

At 140 x 40 centimeters (58.27 x 15.75 inches), this large ink and wash drawing is an architectural elevation for a Monument destiné aux hommages dus à l’Etre Suprême (Monument intended for tributes due to the Supreme Being) by French neo-classical architect, Étienne-Louis Boullée (1728 – 1799).

Boullée is perhaps best known today for the grandiose building designs he completed in the last decades of the eighteenth century, none of which were ever constructed. While some of the designs from this period were conceived as actual building projects, others, like the monument to the Supreme Being, seem to be purposefully theoretical. It is possible that they were created as examples to train young architects or as illustrations for a treatise on architecture theory that Boullée was planning, titled Architecture, Essai sur l’art.

The most remarkable of these designs is arguably Boullée’s Cenotaph to Isaac Newton, an impossible 152 meter (500 foot) tall monument celebrating the physicist. Although Isaac Newton (1643 – 1727) died over fifty years earlier, a cultish devotion to his life and work escalated throughout Boullée’s lifetime. Conceived as an enormous sphere, the cenotaph plans symbolically represent several scientific theories proposed by Newton, including the original shape of the earth.

Similarly, Boullée’s monument to a Supreme Being is an expression of the metaphorical, emotional, and symbolic aspects of the architecture’s purpose. Function, shape, setting, lighting, and even scent were all considered in an effort to realize the unique character of the monument within a defined aesthetic environment. Boullée believed that a building’s “character” should be poetic and evoke an appropriate feeling in those who experienced it. For example, the strong use of symmetry in his drawing – not only in the buildings, but in the pyramid-shaped mountain as well – is intended as an image of clarity, order, and perfection. The monument thus becomes a metaphor for the divine nature of the Supreme Being. In a passage of his treatise Boullée also describes the setting for this monument:

… the whole would be decorated with all that is most beautiful in nature; the buildings would be mere accessories, the base of the repository formed by a superb open-sided Temple crowning the mountain top. The Temple precincts would consist of fields of flowers exuding their sweet smell like incense offered to the Divine Being… This beautiful place would be the image of all that ensures our well-being; it would fill our hearts with a sense of joy and would be for us a true earthly Paradise.

Although Boullée’s later monumental and public architecture was never built, he was quite successful at domestic architecture earlier in his career. Between 1763 and 1779, Boullée built at least nine major luxury homes in Paris. All but one, the Hôtel Alexandre, have since been destroyed.

Fortunately, due to the popularity of his private homes, many artists documented these buildings in prints and drawings. One example shown here is a drawing in pen and brown ink with watercolor by Jean-Baptiste Lallemand (1716 – 1803). It depicts the Maison de Madame de Brunoy (House of Madame Brunoy), the last and most elaborate home designed by Boullée. Also known as the Hôtel de Brunoy, its garden faced the Champs-Élysées, which at the time created a sense of rural retreat while remaining close to the central city of Paris. Although the lavishly decorated interior was not particularly unique, the exterior represented one of the most radical uses of a temple theme in domestic architecture. Working closely with the Marquise de Brunoy, who shared with Boullée an interest in gardens, he successfully integrated landscape and exterior building design to create a temple to Flora, the goddess of flowering plants. When viewed from the Champs-Élysées, a podium of steps and flowerbeds led up from the garden to an arcade of round-headed openings behind six colossal ionic columns. Above the center of the façade, Boullée raised a stepped pyramid with a statue of Flora at the summit. This feature was perhaps an allegory of the Marquise herself, presiding over the length of her garden, and making the Hôtel de Brunoy one of Boullée’s only expressions of monumental “character” ever to have been built.

To see architectural plans and other drawings by Étienne-Louis Boullée, visit the online exhibition at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, or search the BNF collections using their digital library, Gallica.

All images displayed here are in the public domain, and made available as a courtesy of the Bibliotèque Nationale de France.

Bibliography

An Enigmatic 15th-Century German Bible Illustration

James Wehn — Fri, 05 Jun 2009 14:30:06 +0000

By James Wehn

Moses stands among twelve men armed with swords and a variety of pole arms. Wearing the iconic dress of a biblical prophet, his long robe and red cloak contrasts the fifteenth-century clothes and armor worn by the men around him. The precise meaning of this anonymous drawing in the Thrivent Financial Collection of Religious Art is unclear. The scene is probably intended to illustrate a passage from the book of Exodus in a handwritten German bible. Calligraphy on the verso (back) of the paper is a passage where Moses instructs the Hebrew people to prepare for the last of God’s plagues on Egypt and to flee into the wilderness. However, because the drawing has been removed from it’s original context within a handwritten manuscript, it is impossible to determine whether this scene appeared before or after the verso text. The question remains: what is this scene intended to illustrate?

The men with Moses may represent the leaders of the twelve houses of Israel, which could explain the variety of styles in their attire. That most of them are armed may allude to a later verse, which reads, “The Israelites went up out of the land of Egypt prepared for battle.” (EXODUS 13:18)

The attribution of this work is based on the German script and also the drawing’s stylistic similarity with other illustrated bibles from the same period. Establishing a precise date for the drawing is challenging. However a few elements within the image itself also hint that it was probably produced in the latter half of the fifteenth century.

The full armor on the man to the left of Moses is typical of the “gothic” style worn during this period, and the artist’s detailed drawing makes it easy to identify the many parts that make up a suit of armor. He wears a type of helmet called a sallet, identified by the extension of the metal at the rear. His chin is protected by a bevor. The torso is covered by the cuirass, or breastplate, while faulds protect the hips. The circular defenses at the armpits are called besagews. Foot armor, or sabatons, was typically pointed during the second half of the 15th century. The shape of the blade on the large halberd (the second pole arm from the right) is also consistent with the late 1400s.

Image credit: courtesy Thrivent Financial Collection of Religious Art; photography by Robert Fogt

Bibliography